History of Madeira Island

Before Discovery: Myths and Ancient References

Long before Portuguese caravels formally claimed it, Madeira flickered at the edge of the known world, a whisper in ancient texts and a shadow on medieval maps. Its history doesn’t begin with its discovery, but in the realm of myth, legend, and the burgeoning science of cartography that sought to chart the vast, unknown Atlantic.

The Legendary Isles

References to islands in the Atlantic appear in classical antiquity, fueling the European imagination for centuries. The Roman author and naturalist Pliny the Elder wrote of the Insulae Purpurariae, or the “Purple Islands,” which some historians speculate could have been a reference to the Madeiran archipelago, perhaps due to a lichen that produced a purple dye. These tales blended with the broader concept of the “Fortunate Isles”—mythical lands of eternal spring and abundance lying beyond the Pillars of Hercules.

More romantic, and certainly more dramatic, is the legend of Robert Machim and Anne d’Arfet. This 14th-century tale tells of two English lovers who, fleeing an arranged marriage, were blown off course in a storm and shipwrecked on a verdant, uninhabited island. Anne, frail from the journey, died shortly after, followed by a grief-stricken Robert. The story, whether true or a romanticized fiction, became a powerful piece of lore. It was said that the surviving crew members eventually made it back to the mainland, their tale of the beautiful, wooded island reaching the ears of Portuguese navigators and adding a layer of human drama to the quest for new lands.

Early Cartography

Beyond myth, Madeira began to emerge as a physical, if mysterious, location on early sea charts. Its most notable pre-discovery appearance is on the Medici Atlas, dated to around 1351. Here, the archipelago is clearly depicted, with the main island bearing the name “Isola di Legname,” an Italian name meaning “Island of Wood.” This cartographic evidence is significant, proving that knowledge of the island’s existence and its defining characteristic—its dense forest—preceded the official Portuguese landing by over half a century.

These faint outlines on maps were more than just geographical curiosities; they were strategic targets. In the early 15th century, Portugal, under the visionary leadership of Prince Henry the Navigator, was systematically pushing into the Atlantic. Driven by a desire to find new trade routes to Africa, circumvent rivals, and spread Christianity, Henry sponsored expeditions to map the African coast and claim the islands dotted off its shores. The “Island of Wood,” already known to exist, was a prime and logical target for this ambitious enterprise. Learn more about the reasons to visit Madeira Island to understand its historical significance.

The Age of Discovery: Portugal Claims the Archipelago

The Official Discovery (1419-1420)

While legends and ancient maps hinted at its existence, Madeira’s documented history begins in the early 15th century, a pivotal era for Portuguese exploration. Under the patronage of Prince Henry the Navigator, mariners were pushing the boundaries of the known world. In 1419, two of his captains, João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira, were exploring the coast of Africa when a violent storm blew them far off course. They found shelter on a small, uninhabited island they named Porto Santo (“Holy Harbour”) in gratitude for their salvation.

From Porto Santo, they observed a dark, persistent mass of clouds to the southwest. Intrigued, they returned a year later, in 1420, accompanied by another nobleman, Bartolomeu Perestrelo. Sailing towards the mysterious cloud, they discovered a much larger, mountainous island, completely blanketed by a dense, primeval forest. Struck by the sheer abundance of timber, they named it Ilha da Madeira—the Island of Wood. This “discovery” was not one of chance, but a calculated step in Portugal’s strategic expansion into the Atlantic, officially claiming the archipelago for the Portuguese Crown. Consider checking the visa and travel requirements to visit Madeira Island before planning your trip.

Colonization and Early Settlement

Claiming the island was one thing; taming it was another. The first Portuguese settlers arrived around 1425, faced with the monumental task of making the rugged, forested land habitable and profitable. To manage this effort, the archipelago was divided into three captaincies. João Gonçalves Zarco was appointed captain of the Funchal region, Tristão Vaz Teixeira took charge of Machico on the eastern side of Madeira, and Bartolomeu Perestrelo became the captain of Porto Santo.

The immediate challenge was the impenetrable Laurissilva forest. To clear land for agriculture, the settlers resorted to a drastic measure: fire. Legend holds that they started a great fire that burned uncontrollably for seven years, a dramatic tale that, while likely an exaggeration, powerfully illustrates the immense scale of the land-clearing effort. This initial, destructive act paved the way for a feat of constructive genius: the levadas.

The settlers quickly realized the island’s climatic paradox: the mountainous north received abundant rainfall, while the sunnier, flatter south was ideal for farming but lacked water. Their solution was an incredible system of aqueducts, or levadas. Carved by hand out of sheer rock faces and winding through the mountains for thousands of kilometers, these narrow irrigation channels painstakingly diverted water from the northern springs to the southern terraces. The construction of the levadas was a heroic undertaking, a testament to the immense toil, perseverance, and ingenuity of the early colonists. Far from being a historical relic, this network remains the lifeblood of the island’s agriculture and has been repurposed into a stunning network of hiking trails, allowing visitors today to walk through the very heart of Madeira’s history and landscape. For a comprehensive overview of what this island offers, explore our guide on the best places to visit in Madeira Island.

The Sugar Cycle: Madeira’s First Economic Boom

White Gold

Once the arduous task of clearing the land began, the early settlers needed a cash crop. The answer arrived from Sicily in the form of sugarcane. It found a perfect home in Madeira’s rich volcanic soil and subtropical climate, flourishing on the sun-drenched southern slopes. This crop, so rare and valuable in Europe at the time, quickly became the island’s economic engine. By the late 15th century, Madeira was a dominant force in the global sugar market, and its crystalline product was so prized it became known as “white gold”. This boom was not solely a Portuguese endeavor; it was heavily financed and facilitated by savvy international merchants. Flemish and Genoese traders established significant operations in Funchal, controlling much of the distribution network that sent Madeiran sugar to the markets of Antwerp, Bruges, and beyond.

Funchal’s Rise

The immense profits generated by the sugar trade transformed the island’s capital. Funchal rapidly evolved from a modest colonial outpost into a wealthy and cosmopolitan European port. The city’s coffers swelled, financing the construction of magnificent churches, opulent manors for merchants, and a cathedral with a stunning cedar ceiling—a testament to the era’s prosperity. However, this economic miracle was built on a grim foundation. The labor-intensive process of cultivating and processing sugarcane demanded a vast workforce, a demand met through the brutal system of slavery. Thousands of enslaved people, primarily from West Africa and the Canary Islands, were forcibly brought to Madeira to toil on the plantations and in the sugar mills, their forced labor creating the wealth that built the city and enriched European traders. For more on the island’s history, check out our Key Facts of Madeira Island.

A Target for Pirates and Privateers

Strategic Vulnerability

The prosperity brought by the sugar trade came at a price. By the 16th century, Madeira’s reputation as a treasure island, laden with “white gold,” had spread across the seas. Its wealth, combined with its strategic but isolated position in the Atlantic, made it an irresistible target for pirates and privateers operating with the tacit approval of rival European powers. The very success that had transformed Funchal into a bustling commercial hub now painted a target on its back. If you’re planning a trip, you might want to review our Visa and travel Requirements to visit Madeira Island.

In response, the Portuguese Crown initiated the construction of a defensive network around the island’s capital. The earliest fortifications, including the beginnings of the Palácio de São Lourenço and the Bulwark of Funchal, were erected to guard the harbor. These initial efforts were a clear acknowledgment of the growing threat, an attempt to protect the island’s riches from opportunistic raiders who prowled the Atlantic shipping lanes. Consider our guide to Reasons to visit Madeira Island for more insights.

The Great Attack of 1566

Despite these precautions, the island’s defenses were put to a horrific test in September 1566. A fleet of French corsairs, commanded by the nobleman-turned-pirate Bertrand de Montluc, descended upon Funchal. With over a thousand men, they overwhelmed the city’s small garrison. What followed was a brutal, fifteen-day sacking of the capital. The pirates plundered churches, sugar warehouses, and private homes, subjecting the population to violence and leaving the once-thriving city in ruins.

The attack was a profound trauma for Madeira. The scale of the destruction served as a grim wake-up call, exposing the inadequacy of the existing defenses. In the aftermath, a massive effort was undertaken to rebuild and refortify Funchal. King Sebastião I of Portugal dispatched military engineers to design a more robust and integrated defensive system. This led to the construction of new strongholds like the Fortaleza de São Tiago and the expansion of existing ones, fundamentally reshaping the city’s waterfront into a bastion designed to ensure such a devastating raid would never happen again.

The Wine Cycle: A New Era of Prosperity

From Sugar to Vines

Every boom has its eventual decline, and for Madeira’s “white gold,” the end came with the rise of a formidable competitor: Brazil. The vast Portuguese colony, with its immense scale and slave-powered plantations, began to produce sugar at a volume and price that the small island could not match. By the 17th century, Madeira’s sugar monoculture was no longer sustainable, forcing the island’s landowners to pivot to a new crop that would define its identity for centuries to come: the grapevine.

The transition to viticulture was not merely a change of crop but the birth of an entirely new industry. Initially, the wines were similar to those from mainland Portugal, but the long sea voyages to export markets had an unexpected effect. To prevent spoilage, grape spirit was added, fortifying the wine. Shippers soon noticed that the wine that had been subjected to the heat and rocking motion of a long tropical voyage actually improved in quality, developing complex, nutty, and caramelized flavors. This discovery led to the intentional development of the estufagem process, where the wine is heated over time to replicate the effects of a sea journey. Thus, the unique and virtually indestructible Madeira wine was born, perfectly suited for a globalized world connected by ships.

Global Acclaim and British Influence

While the wine was a Madeiran creation, its global success was largely driven by British merchant families who settled on the island. Recognizing the potential of this robust, age-worthy wine, they established venerable trading houses that still exist today. Names like Blandy’s, Cossart Gordon, and Leacock’s became synonymous with quality, establishing rigorous production standards and building extensive trade networks that reached across the Atlantic and beyond. They were not just merchants; they were instrumental in shaping the wine’s character and cementing its international reputation.

This fortified wine became a staple in the cellars of England and, most notably, the American colonies. Its ability to withstand the trans-Atlantic journey without spoiling made it the preferred import for the colonial elite. It was so cherished that it became woven into the fabric of American history. In a famous historical anecdote, it is said that the signing of the American Declaration of Independence in 1776 was toasted not with champagne, but with a glass of Madeira wine, a fitting tribute to a beverage that had fueled the colonial economy and warmed its revolutionary spirits.

Navigating Political Turmoil

The Napoleonic Wars and British Occupation

As Europe was plunged into the chaos of the Napoleonic Wars, Madeira’s strategic location in the Atlantic once again came to the fore. Portugal, a long-standing ally of Great Britain, found itself in a precarious position against Napoleon’s expanding empire. The island’s excellent natural harbour at Funchal was a vital waystation for British naval and merchant fleets. To prevent this crucial asset from falling into French hands, Britain took a proactive step to secure the island.

This led to two periods of peaceful British occupation, first briefly in 1801 and then for a more extended period from 1807 to 1814. These were not hostile takeovers but rather protective garrisons, established with the consent of the Portuguese crown-in-exile. British soldiers patrolled the streets of Funchal, and the Union Jack flew alongside the Portuguese flag, ensuring the island remained a safe port under British protection throughout the conflict.

The prolonged British presence had a lasting cultural and economic impact. It strengthened the already deep-rooted commercial ties, particularly solidifying the dominance of British merchant families in the Madeira wine trade. This era further cemented the island’s reputation within the British sphere of influence, fostering cultural exchanges and leaving an indelible mark on its social fabric that can still be felt today.

19th Century Challenges

The relative stability of the war years gave way to profound challenges in the mid-19th century. The island’s economy, by now almost entirely dependent on viticulture, was brought to its knees by two catastrophic plant epidemics. In 1852, oidium (powdery mildew) swept through the vineyards, followed two decades later by the even more destructive phylloxera pest. These blights decimated grape production, crippling the wine trade and causing widespread economic ruin.

Faced with failing vineyards and immense hardship, thousands of Madeirans were forced to leave their homeland in search of a better life. This triggered significant waves of emigration throughout the latter half of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Large communities of Madeiran descent were established in destinations as varied as Brazil, British Guiana (now Guyana), Venezuela, and South Africa. This diaspora marked a difficult chapter in the island’s history but also spread Madeiran culture and resilience across the globe.

The 20th Century: Towards Modernity and Autonomy

World Wars and Neutrality

The turbulent first half of the 20th century saw Madeira navigate a complex path shaped by global conflict. Though Portugal maintained official neutrality for most of both World Wars, the island’s strategic location in the Atlantic meant it could not remain entirely detached. Funchal’s harbor served as a crucial, neutral port of call for Allied shipping and a safe haven for refugees fleeing the turmoil in Europe. This relative peace, however, was shattered during World War I.

On December 3, 1916, a German U-boat entered Funchal’s harbor and torpedoed three ships, bringing the war directly to Madeira’s shores. The attack, followed by a bombardment of the city, was a shocking reminder of the island’s vulnerability. Despite the brief but violent episode, Madeira largely retained its status as a sanctuary throughout the wars.

This role as a refuge also extended to political exiles. Its most famous resident during this period was Charles I, the last Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. After his second unsuccessful attempt to reclaim the Hungarian throne, he was exiled to Madeira in 1921. He lived with his family in a villa in the hills above Funchal until his death from pneumonia in 1922, a poignant final chapter in the history of the Austro-Hungarian Empire played out on this remote Atlantic island.

The Carnation Revolution and Autonomy

The most significant political shift in modern Portuguese history, the Carnation Revolution of April 25, 1974, heralded a new era for Madeira. The peaceful military coup in Lisbon toppled the authoritarian Estado Novo regime, ushering in democracy and decolonization across the Portuguese-speaking world. For Madeira and the Azores, this revolutionary spirit paved the way for greater self-governance.

Following the revolution, fervent political debate and a desire for a distinct regional identity culminated in a landmark achievement. In 1976, the new Portuguese Constitution established the Autonomous Region of Madeira (Região Autónoma da Madeira). This granted the archipelago its own regional government and a legislative assembly with the power to manage local affairs, from economic policy and infrastructure to health and education. This political autonomy was a defining moment, empowering Madeirans to chart their own course and laying the foundation for the prosperous, modern island we see today.

Madeira Today: A Living Legacy

The story of Madeira did not end with the turn of a century; it continues to be written every day. The island’s turbulent and prosperous history has shaped a resilient and unique culture, creating a modern destination where the past is not just remembered but is an integral part of the present landscape and identity.

The Pillars of the Modern Economy

While the echoes of the sugar and wine cycles remain, Madeira’s contemporary economy is largely propelled by a new engine: tourism. Drawn by its year-round mild climate, dramatic natural beauty, and reputation for safety and tranquility, visitors from around the world have made the island a premier travel destination. This modern boom is built upon the very features that have defined Madeira for centuries—its lush mountains, stunning coastline, and a culture of hospitality refined over generations.

Yet, tradition endures. The iconic Madeira wine continues to be produced and celebrated globally, a liquid legacy of the island’s commercial past. Agriculture also remains vital, with the island’s terraced slopes producing not just grapes but also the famous Madeiran banana and a variety of other tropical fruits. This blend of a modern, service-based economy with deep-rooted agricultural traditions gives the island a unique and sustainable character.

History Etched in the Landscape

To visit Madeira is to walk through a living museum. The island’s history is not confined to books; it is carved into the very mountainsides and built into the stones of its capital. For the observant traveler, the story of the island unfolds at every turn.

• The Levadas: These remarkable irrigation channels, born from the necessity of the earliest settlers, are now a network of over 2,000 kilometers of walking trails. Hiking a levada is a direct encounter with the island’s foundational history, a testament to the immense effort required to make this land habitable and fertile.
• Funchal’s Historic Architecture: The capital city’s “Zona Velha” (Old Town) showcases centuries of history. The 15th-century Sé Cathedral stands as a monument to the wealth of the sugar era, while the numerous forts guarding the harbour are stark reminders of the constant threat from pirates and privateers.
• The Terraced Vineyards: The steep, stair-like terraces, known as poios, that climb the island’s slopes are a breathtaking sight. They represent the back-breaking labour of generations who transitioned the island from sugar to wine, manually shaping the landscape to cultivate the grapes for its world-famous fortified wine.
• Lasting Cultural Traditions: History lives on in Madeira’s vibrant cultural life. From religious festivals and folk music to traditional embroidery and wicker crafts, these practices connect the present-day community to its historical roots, offering visitors an authentic glimpse into the island’s soul.

Understanding this rich and layered history profoundly enhances the experience of visiting Madeira. A glass of wine is no longer just a drink, but a taste of a centuries-old trade that shaped empires. A walk along a levada becomes a journey in the footsteps of the island’s pioneers. By seeing the connections between the past and the present, a visitor can appreciate Madeira not just as a beautiful island, but as a remarkable chronicle of human endurance, ingenuity, and adaptation.