History of Mexico

The Ancient Civilizations: Before the Spanish

To truly appreciate the archaeological sites you will visit, it helps to understand the major cultures that shaped early Mexican history. This brief overview provides context for the remarkable ruins and artifacts that await you.

The Olmecs: The “Mother Culture”

• Flourished from approximately 1500 BCE to 400 BCE along the Gulf Coast, establishing a cultural foundation for later civilizations.
• They are renowned for their colossal carved stone heads, believed to be portraits of powerful rulers. You can see magnificent examples in museums like the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.
• The Olmecs are considered the originators of many Mesoamerican cultural hallmarks, including the ritual ballgame, complex calendar systems, and the practice of building ceremonial pyramids.

The Maya: Masters of Astronomy and Architecture

• This civilization dominated southern Mexico and parts of Central America from around 2000 BCE to the 1500s CE, with their classical period of greatest achievement occurring between 250 and 900 CE.
• The Maya were not a unified empire but a collection of powerful, and often competing, city-states. Your itinerary may include famous sites such as Chichen Itza, Palenque, or Tulum.
• They are celebrated for their sophisticated hieroglyphic writing system, highly accurate calendars, and precise astronomical knowledge, all of which are intricately woven into the design and alignment of their temples and observatories.

Teotihuacan: The City of the Gods

• A vast and influential city-state near modern-day Mexico City, Teotihuacan reached its peak between 100 BCE and 550 CE. At its height, it was one of the largest cities in the ancient world.
• The identity of its builders remains a compelling mystery, yet their cultural and architectural influence is evident in sites across Mesoamerica.
• The city is home to the iconic Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, monumental structures connected by the grand Avenue of the Dead. Centuries after its abandonment, the Aztecs discovered the ruins and gave the site its name, meaning “the place where the gods were created.”

The Aztecs (Mexica): The Empire of the Sun

• The Mexica, commonly known as the Aztecs, were the dominant force in central Mexico at the time of the Spanish arrival in the 16th century.
• They founded their magnificent capital, Tenochtitlan, on an island in Lake Texcoco in 1325. This very location is now the heart of modern-day Mexico City.
• The Aztecs were known for their highly organized social structure, ingenious agricultural engineering like the chinampas (or ‘floating gardens’), and complex religious traditions. The ruins of their central temple, the Templo Mayor, are visible today right next to the Zócalo in Mexico City.

The Spanish Conquest and Colonial Era (1521-1821)

This 300-year period profoundly reshaped Mexico, forging a new identity from the dramatic and often turbulent encounter between European and indigenous worlds. The blend of cultures from this era defines much of what you will experience in Mexico today.

The Arrival of Cortés and the Fall of Tenochtitlan

• The Spanish expedition led by conquistador Hernán Cortés landed on the Mexican coast in 1519, marking the beginning of a new historical chapter.
• Through strategic alliances with indigenous groups resentful of Aztec rule, the advantages of European weaponry, and the catastrophic spread of diseases like smallpox, the Spanish conquered the Aztec Empire, culminating in the fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521.
• This event did not just end an empire; it initiated three centuries of Spanish colonial rule that would transform the continent’s social, political, and cultural landscape.

New Spain: 300 Years of Spanish Rule

• Mexico was reorganized as the Viceroyalty of New Spain, becoming one of the Spanish Empire’s most important and wealthy colonies, largely due to its vast silver mines.
• The Spanish established a rigid social hierarchy known as the casta system, which classified individuals based on their racial ancestry. They also made Roman Catholicism the official religion, building churches often atop the ruins of indigenous temples.
• This era produced the stunning colonial architecture you will admire in cities such as Oaxaca, Puebla, and San Miguel de Allende, characterized by grand cathedrals, ornate facades, and charming central plazas.

The Blending of Cultures (Mestizaje)

The colonial period was defined by a profound fusion of indigenous and Spanish traditions, a process known as mestizaje, which created a unique and vibrant new culture.

• Food: The culinary landscape was transformed as indigenous staples like corn, beans, and chiles were combined with Spanish introductions such as wheat, pork, beef, and dairy, creating the foundation of modern Mexican cuisine.
• Religion: Indigenous spiritual beliefs subtly merged with Catholic practices, resulting in unique syncretic traditions. The most famous example is the Day of the Dead (Día de Muertos), which blends pre-Hispanic concepts of death with the Catholic holidays of All Saints’ Day and All Souls’ Day.
• Language: While Spanish became the dominant language, it absorbed hundreds of words from indigenous languages, particularly Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs.

The Fight for Independence and a New Nation

The 19th century was a formative period that saw the birth of Mexico as a sovereign nation. The struggles of this era helped shape the country’s national identity and its relationship with the wider world.

The Cry of Dolores: The War of Independence

• On the morning of September 16, 1810, the priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla delivered the “Grito de Dolores” (Cry of Dolores), a passionate call to arms that ignited the rebellion against Spanish colonial rule.
• This pivotal moment is commemorated annually on September 16th, which is celebrated with fireworks and festivities as Mexico’s Independence Day.
• A difficult and protracted 11-year war ensued, involving numerous leaders and shifting alliances, which finally culminated in Mexico achieving its independence from Spain in 1821.

A Century of Instability

• Independence did not immediately bring peace. The 19th century was a turbulent time marked by intense internal political conflicts between conservatives and liberals.
• Key events from this period include the Mexican-American War (1846-1848), which resulted in Mexico ceding almost half of its territory to the United States, and the French Intervention (1861-1867), an attempt by Napoleon III to establish a monarchy in Mexico.
• During the French Intervention, the Mexican army won a significant and unexpected victory at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862. While the war continued, this event became a powerful symbol of Mexican resistance and is celebrated today as Cinco de Mayo.

The Mexican Revolution and the 20th Century

The Mexican Revolution was one of the most important events of the 20th century, fundamentally reshaping the nation’s political and social fabric. Its legacy is crucial for understanding modern Mexican identity, art, and politics.

A Revolution for “Land and Liberty” (1910-1920)

• This major social and political conflict erupted to overthrow the long-standing dictator Porfirio Díaz. Its primary goals were to address profound social inequality and to achieve significant land reform for the rural population.
• Iconic revolutionary figures emerged, including Emiliano Zapata in the south, who championed the cause of peasant land rights under the slogan “Tierra y Libertad” (Land and Liberty), and Pancho Villa, a charismatic general in the north.
• The revolution profoundly reshaped Mexican society and government, leading to the creation of the Constitution of 1917. This progressive document, which established labor rights and land reform, remains the constitution of Mexico today.

The Muralist Movement: Art for the People

• In the decades following the Revolution, the government sponsored a public art movement to help unify the nation, educate the populace, and promote the values of the new Mexico, with a strong emphasis on celebrating its indigenous heritage.
• Artists like Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, and David Alfaro Siqueiros—known as “los tres grandes” (the three great ones)—painted monumental murals on the walls of public buildings, depicting Mexico’s history, struggles, and triumphs from a proudly non-colonial perspective.

You can see masterpieces of this powerful artistic movement in Mexico City at sites like the Palacio Nacional, which features Diego Rivera’s epic murals on Mexican history, and the Palacio de Bellas Artes.

Mexico Today: A Living History

Understanding Mexico’s past is not an academic exercise; it is the key to unlocking a deeper appreciation for the country’s vibrant present. This historical context will enrich every aspect of your journey.

Echoes of the Past in Modern Life

• Mexico’s history is not confined to museums or ancient ruins; it is a living force you will encounter daily in the streets, markets, and towns.
• Pay attention to the blend of architectural styles on a single city block, the incredible diversity of faces reflecting centuries of mestizaje, the regional cuisines still based on ancient ingredients, and the vibrant festivals that seamlessly mix pre-Hispanic symbolism with Catholic traditions.

How History Enriches Your Trip

• Knowing that Mexico City’s central square, the Zócalo, was built directly over the ceremonial heart of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan will transform your perception of the space.
• Understanding the Maya’s sophisticated grasp of astronomy makes exploring the precise alignments of temples at Chichen Itza or Palenque a much more profound and meaningful experience.
• Recognizing the legacy of New Spain allows you to appreciate not just the beauty of colonial cities, but also the history and social structures that shaped their elegant plazas and cobblestone streets.