History of Peru

The First Peruvians: Pre-Inca Civilizations

The Norte Chico Civilization (c. 3500–1800 BCE)

Long before the Incas, Peru was home to some of the most ancient and sophisticated cultures in the Americas. The depth of this history is immense, beginning with civilizations like the Norte Chico.

• The Sacred City of Caral: Considered one of the oldest civilizations in the Americas, the people of Caral built monumental pyramids and developed complex agricultural systems, remarkably, before they had developed ceramics.

The Great Coastal and Highland Cultures

Across Peru, a succession of powerful cultures rose and fell, each leaving a distinct legacy that you will encounter in museums and at archaeological sites throughout your journey.

• Chavín (c. 900–200 BCE): From their highland temple at Chavín de Huántar, this culture exerted a powerful religious and artistic influence that spread across the Andes, recognizable by its stylized depictions of jaguars, eagles, and serpents.
• Paracas (c. 800–100 BCE): Located on the arid southern coast, the Paracas were master weavers. Their intricate, beautifully colored textiles are considered among the finest examples of fabric art from the ancient world.
• Moche (c. 100–700 CE): The Moche dominated the northern coast, engineering vast irrigation canals to make the desert bloom. They are celebrated for their realistic portrait pottery and the massive adobe pyramids known as the Huacas del Sol y de la Luna (Temples of the Sun and Moon).
• Nazca (c. 100 BCE–800 CE): This culture is famed for creating the enigmatic Nazca Lines, a series of enormous geoglyphs carved into the desert floor, whose purpose remains a subject of fascination and debate.

The Inca Empire: Tawantinsuyu

Origins and Expansion

According to legend, the Inca dynasty began when the mythical founders, Manco Cápac and Mama Ocllo, emerged from Lake Titicaca to establish the city of Cusco. For centuries, the Incas were a small kingdom, but in the 15th century, the visionary ruler Sapa Inca Pachacuti began a period of rapid conquest. He transformed his kingdom into the vast and powerful empire known as Tawantinsuyu, or “The Four Regions.”

This immense territory was unified by the Qhapaq Ñan, a sophisticated and extensive road network that stretched for thousands of miles, connecting the diverse corners of the empire.

Inca Society and Achievements

The Inca Empire was a marvel of organization and engineering, with a highly structured society that left a profound mark on the Andean landscape.

• Cusco: The imperial capital was considered the “Navel of the World,” a political, religious, and administrative center of immense importance.
• Engineering: The Incas were master stonemasons, capable of cutting and fitting massive stones so precisely that no mortar was needed. They were also agricultural geniuses, creating extensive mountain terraces, or andenes, to cultivate crops at high altitudes.
• Administration: Society was centrally planned and highly organized. Lacking a written script, they used quipus—complex arrangements of knotted strings—to record census data, supplies, and historical information.
• Communication: A relay system of runners called chasquis could carry messages and small items across the empire with astonishing speed, covering up to 240 kilometers (150 miles) in a single day.

The Civil War and Downfall

The empire’s strength was tragically undermined by a devastating war of succession between two brothers, Huáscar and Atahualpa, following their father’s death. This conflict left the Inca military and political structure severely weakened. It was at the very end of this war, in 1532, that the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro and his small contingent of men arrived on the coast. Pizarro cleverly exploited the political division, arranging a meeting with the victorious Atahualpa in the city of Cajamarca, where he captured the Inca emperor, marking the beginning of the end for the mighty empire.

Spanish Conquest and the Colonial Era

The Fall of Cusco and Rise of Lima

After executing Atahualpa, the Spanish marched on Cusco, eventually sacking the Inca capital. In 1535, they established a new capital on the coast, naming it Lima, which became the center of the powerful Viceroyalty of Peru. Though pockets of Inca resistance, led by Manco Inca and his successors from the jungle fortress of Vilcabamba, continued for decades, the Spanish eventually consolidated their control over the entire region.

Life in the Viceroyalty

The colonial period reshaped Peru, creating a new society from the fusion of European and Andean worlds. This transformation is fundamental to understanding the character of modern Peru’s cities.

• Syncretism: The Spanish imposed Catholicism, but Andean beliefs were never fully erased. Instead, they blended, creating a unique religious syncretism visible today in vibrant festivals where Catholic saints are celebrated with distinctly Andean rituals and imagery.
• Architecture: A defining feature of colonial cities is the practice of building on top of what came before. In Cusco, you will see Spanish churches, convents, and mansions constructed directly upon the meticulously crafted stone foundations of Inca temples and palaces.
• Economy: The Viceroyalty’s wealth was built on the extraction of silver and gold from Andean mines, most famously from Potosí (in modern-day Bolivia). This economy was sustained by a system of forced labor imposed upon the indigenous population.

Independence and the Republic

The Struggle for Freedom

By the early 19th century, calls for independence were sweeping across South America. Peru declared its independence from Spain in 1821, a goal achieved with the crucial military assistance of foreign liberators: the Argentine general José de San Martín and, later, the Venezuelan leader Simón Bolívar. The final, decisive victory against royalist forces at the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824 secured Peru’s sovereignty and ended nearly 300 years of Spanish rule.

Modern Peruvian History

The 19th and 20th centuries were often turbulent, marked by periods of political instability, conflicts with neighboring countries over territory (such as the War of the Pacific against Chile), and an economy subject to booms and busts tied to its natural resources. In the late 20th century, the country endured a serious internal conflict with the Shining Path terrorist group, a difficult period from which Peru has shown remarkable resilience and strength in its recovery.

The 21st century has brought a sustained period of democratic governance and significant economic growth. This progress has been fueled by the country’s rich natural resources and a thriving tourism industry, cementing Peru’s place as a stable and compelling destination.

History You Can See Today

Your journey through Peru is a journey through time. The history outlined above is not confined to museums; it is etched into the landscape, the stones of the cities, and the faces of the people. Here is how to connect the places you will visit with their historical context.

The Inca Legacy

• Machu Picchu: The most famous Inca site is a breathtaking example of a royal estate, perfectly integrated with its mountain surroundings and aligned with astronomical events.
• Cusco: In the former Inca capital, you can see the foundation of the Coricancha (Temple of the Sun) beneath the Santo Domingo Convent and witness the incredible scale of Inca stonework at the fortress of Sacsayhuamán overlooking the city.
• The Sacred Valley: Explore the formidable fortress of Ollantaytambo, the site of a rare Inca victory against the Spanish, and admire the sweeping agricultural terraces of Pisac.

The Colonial Footprint

• Lima’s Historic Center: A UNESCO World Heritage site, the center of Lima is a showcase of colonial grandeur, with ornate churches, grand palaces, and distinctive carved wooden balconies.
• Arequipa’s “White City”: This city’s beautiful historic center is built from a white volcanic stone called sillar, giving its colonial-baroque architecture a unique and luminous appearance.
• Cusco’s Churches: The grand Cathedral and the Church of the Society of Jesus dominate the Plaza de Armas. Inside, you will find magnificent examples of the “Cusco School” of art, which masterfully blends European religious themes with indigenous Andean symbols and styles.

Pre-Inca Marvels

• The Nazca Lines: The best way to appreciate these massive and mysterious geoglyphs is from a scenic flight that reveals the figures of animals, plants, and geometric shapes etched into the desert.
• Northern Peru: Near the city of Trujillo, you can explore the vast adobe city of Chan Chan, the capital of the Chimú culture, and the nearby Moche pyramids, the Huacas del Sol y de la Luna.