History of Peru

The First Peruvians: Ancient Civilizations

Your journey through Peru is a journey back in time, far deeper than just the celebrated Inca Empire. The landscapes you will explore are layered with the histories of numerous complex societies that rose and fell over millennia. Throughout your travels, you will encounter direct evidence of these foundational cultures, from artifacts in world-class museums to the very foundations of the archaeological sites you will visit.

The Norte Chico Civilization (c. 3500–1800 BCE)

Among the world’s earliest cradles of civilization, the Norte Chico culture developed along the coast of Peru concurrently with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. This complex, pre-ceramic society was home to Caral, now considered the oldest city in the Americas. Their legacy is one of monumental architecture, including large earthen platform mounds and distinctive sunken circular plazas, which stand as a testament to their sophisticated social organization.

Key Pre-Inca Cultures

• Chavín Culture (c. 900–200 BCE): Centered at the temple of Chavín de Huántar, this culture exerted immense religious and artistic influence across the Andes. Their iconography, featuring feline, avian, and serpentine figures, became a widespread cultural touchstone.
• Paracas Culture (c. 800–100 BCE): Located on the arid southern coast, the Paracas are famed for their stunningly intricate textiles. These beautifully preserved weavings, used as funerary wrappings for their mummified dead, are considered some of the finest examples of pre-Columbian textile art.
• Moche Culture (c. 100–700 CE): The Moche were master artisans who dominated the northern coast. They are renowned for their realistic ceramic “portrait pots” that depict individuals with striking detail, and for the incredible wealth discovered in the tombs of their rulers, most notably the Lord of Sipán.
• Nazca Culture (c. 100 BCE–800 CE): South of the Moche, the Nazca culture is responsible for one of the world’s greatest archaeological mysteries: the Nazca Lines. These massive geoglyphs, depicting animals, plants, and geometric shapes, were etched into the desert floor and are best viewed from the air.

The Wari and Tiwanaku Empires (c. 600–1100 CE)

Long before the Incas, two powerful empires held sway over the Andes. The Wari and Tiwanaku established vast networks of trade and influence that set the stage for the Inca unification. The Wari, based in the central highlands, were masters of terrace farming and extensive road-building, creating an administrative and engineering blueprint that the Incas would later adopt and perfect. The Tiwanaku, whose ceremonial center was near Lake Titicaca, were known for their monumental stone architecture and gateways, such as the iconic Gateway of the Sun.

The Inca Empire: Children of the Sun

The Inca Empire represents the culmination of thousands of years of Andean civilization. In a relatively short period, they forged the largest empire in the pre-Columbian Americas, an accomplishment of social organization and engineering that continues to inspire awe.

The Rise of Cusco

According to legend, the Inca dynasty was founded by Manco Cápac and Mama Ocllo, who were sent to earth by the sun god Inti and emerged from the waters of Lake Titicaca. From their small city-state of Cusco, the Incas expanded to control a vast territory known as Tawantinsuyu (The Four Regions). This dramatic expansion was largely driven by the visionary ruler Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui in the 15th century, who is credited with commissioning the construction of remarkable sites like Machu Picchu.

Imperial Organization and Engineering

• The empire was ruled by the Sapa Inca, an absolute monarch considered a direct descendant of the sun god.
• A vast territory was managed and connected by the Qhapaq Ñan, a sophisticated road network stretching nearly 25,000 miles, complete with bridges, causeways, and storehouses.
• Official records, census data, and historical narratives were kept not with writing, but with quipus, a complex system of colored, knotted strings.
• The Incas were master stonemasons. You will see their work firsthand in the streets of Cusco and the fortresses of the Sacred Valley, where they built precisely fitted walls using massive stones that interlock perfectly without mortar—an ingenious design that has allowed these structures to withstand centuries of earthquakes.

The Fall of an Empire

The Inca Empire’s peak was tragically brief. A devastating civil war erupted between two brothers, Huáscar and Atahualpa, for control of the throne following their father’s death. This internal conflict severely weakened the empire’s military and social cohesion just as a small force of Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro arrived on the coast in 1532.

The Spanish Conquest and Colonial Era

The arrival of the Spanish marked an abrupt and transformative turning point in Peruvian history. This period fundamentally reshaped the country’s religion, architecture, and social fabric, creating the unique cultural fusion that you will experience in cities like Lima, Cusco, and Arequipa today.

Arrival of the Conquistadors

Taking advantage of the empire’s internal strife, Francisco Pizarro arranged a meeting with the victorious Inca ruler, Atahualpa, in the city of Cajamarca. There, he ambushed and captured Atahualpa, demanding a staggering ransom of a room filled once with gold and twice with silver. Though the ransom was paid, the Spanish executed Atahualpa and marched on the Inca capital of Cusco, capturing it in 1533. Despite the collapse of the central government, indigenous resistance continued for decades, notably under the leadership of figures like Manco Inca.

The Viceroyalty of Peru

In 1535, the Spanish founded Lima as the “City of Kings,” which quickly became the capital of the vast Viceroyalty of Peru and the epicenter of Spanish power in South America. The colonial economy was fueled by the immense wealth extracted from silver mines, particularly the one at Potosí (in modern-day Bolivia), which relied on a system of forced indigenous labor. This era is defined architecturally by the construction of magnificent churches, ornate monasteries, and grand colonial mansions, many of which you will see were built directly upon the foundations of dismantled Inca temples and palaces.

A Fusion of Cultures

The colonial period was not simply a replacement of one culture with another, but a complex blending of Spanish and indigenous traditions. This is most visible in religious syncretism, where Andean mountain deities (Apus) or beliefs about Mother Earth (Pachamama) became associated with Catholic saints and the Virgin Mary. A unique artistic style, the “Cusco School” of painting, also emerged, combining European religious subjects with distinctively local elements like native flora, fauna, and indigenous facial features in portraits of saints.

The Republic and Modern Peru

The story of Peru since its independence is one of resilience and transformation. The nation you are visiting today has been forged through centuries of struggle, change, and reinvention, culminating in a vibrant and forward-looking country.

The Fight for Independence

Inspired by revolutionary movements across the Americas, Peru declared its independence from Spain on July 28, 1821. The effort was led not by a local uprising, but by foreign liberators: the Argentine general José de San Martín and, later, the Venezuelan general Simón Bolívar. The final, decisive victory for all of South American independence was won on Peruvian soil at the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824, ending nearly 300 years of Spanish rule.

A Century of Change

The 19th and early 20th centuries were a turbulent period for the new republic. It was marked by recurring political instability, territorial disputes with its neighbors, most notably the devastating War of the Pacific against Chile, and a series of economic booms and busts tied to the export of resources like guano (seabird droppings used as fertilizer) and rubber.

Recent History and a Resilient Nation

The late 20th century presented Peru with significant challenges, including periods of military government and a violent internal conflict with the Shining Path terrorist group that deeply scarred the nation. However, since the 1990s, Peru has undergone a remarkable recovery. It has achieved a sustained period of political stability and impressive economic growth, transforming its national outlook. This era of peace and progress has allowed Peru to emerge as a world-renowned destination, celebrated for its incredible cultural heritage, breathtaking natural beauty, and a dynamic culinary scene that is now counted among the best in the world.